Best Online Master of Public Administration Programs in Rhode Island

Compare tuition, NASPAA accreditation, and career outcomes for every RI online MPA option.

By Max SheltonReviewed by PAP Editoral TeamUpdated May 19, 202610+ min read

Key Points

  • Rhode Island offers online MPA programs through two schools: the University of Rhode Island and Roger Williams University.
  • URI holds NASPAA accreditation, the gold standard credential that strengthens career prospects for public service graduates.
  • Unique concentrations like URI's Blue MPA in ocean and coastal policy set Rhode Island apart from larger state systems.
  • RI MPA graduates report strong post-graduation earnings relative to tuition costs across both in-state and out-of-state rates.

Rhode Island's public sector employs roughly one in six workers statewide, yet only two universities offer online MPA programs: the University of Rhode Island and Roger Williams University. That concentrated supply means fewer choices but also less noise. Both programs serve working professionals through flexible online delivery, and URI holds NASPAA accreditation, a credential that carries real weight with federal and state hiring managers.

The practical tension here is straightforward. A small program pool simplifies comparison but raises the stakes on fit, specialization, and cost. In-state graduate tuition at URI runs well below the national average for NASPAA-accredited programs, while Roger Williams provides a private-university alternative with distinct concentration options. Professionals still weighing broader options may want to compare MPA programs Massachusetts or online MPA programs New Hampshire alongside Rhode Island's offerings. For professionals rooted in southern New England, proximity to Providence's statehouse, nonprofit corridor, and municipal agencies remains a tangible career advantage that most online public administration degree programs in larger states cannot replicate.

Best Online MPA Programs in Rhode Island: Rankings & Comparison

Rhode Island's online MPA landscape is compact, with just two institutions offering a total of four program listings. That small footprint is actually an advantage for prospective students: rather than scrolling through dozens of options, you can conduct a genuinely thorough, side-by-side evaluation of every available pathway. Below, we break down each school and its program offerings so you can make a confident, well-informed decision about which online MPA fits your career goals in 2026.

Factors considered
  • Online delivery eligibility
  • NASPAA accreditation status
  • Institutional graduation and retention rates
  • Tuition and net price competitiveness
  • Program depth and concentration options
Data sources
  1. #1

    University of Rhode Island

    Kingston, RI · $21,000/yr

    Best for: Working professionals seeking NASPAA-accredited credentials

    The University of Rhode Island stands out as the state's flagship public research university and the home of Rhode Island's first NASPAA-accredited MPA, a milestone achieved in 2024. URI's accelerated online MPA is built around flexible 7-week modules and a stackable certificate model, letting working professionals earn credentials along the way while completing 36 credits in under two years. With a 73.3% institution-wide graduation rate, a 17:1 student-to-faculty ratio, and median alumni earnings of $69,743 ten years after enrollment, URI delivers strong academic infrastructure alongside genuine career momentum for public service professionals.

    View 3 programs
    • Fully online, accelerated format with 7-week course modules
    • NASPAA-accredited, the first MPA in RI to earn that distinction
    • Stackable certificates build credentials before degree completion
    • Develops budgeting, financial analysis, and governance skills
    • No GRE or entrance exam required for admission
    • In-state tuition approximately $18,028; out-of-state $33,148
    • Prepares graduates for government, nonprofit, and private sector roles
    • Fully online, accelerated format with 7-week course modules
    • NASPAA-accredited, the first MPA in RI to earn that distinction
    • Stackable certificates build credentials before degree completion
    • Develops budgeting, financial analysis, and governance skills
    • No GRE or entrance exam required for admission
    • In-state tuition approximately $18,028; out-of-state $33,148
    • Prepares graduates for government, nonprofit, and private sector roles
    • Fully online, accelerated format with 7-week course modules
    • NASPAA-accredited, the first MPA in RI to earn that distinction
    • Stackable certificates build credentials before degree completion
    • Develops budgeting, financial analysis, and governance skills
    • No GRE or entrance exam required for admission
    • In-state tuition approximately $18,028; out-of-state $33,148
    • Prepares graduates for government, nonprofit, and private sector roles
  2. #2

    Johnson & Wales University-Online

    Providence, RI · $20,000 – $25,000/yr

    Best for: Career changers needing flexible admissions pathways

    Based in Providence, Johnson & Wales University offers a fully online, 36-credit MPA that emphasizes multifaceted leadership across government, health, justice, and nonprofit sectors. The program is particularly accessible: a conditional acceptance pathway accommodates applicants with GPAs between 2.41 and 2.84 who can demonstrate professional success, making it a realistic option for experienced professionals whose undergraduate records may not reflect their current capabilities. With a flat tuition of $15,156 regardless of residency and nine elective credits for customization, JWU's MPA is a cost-effective, flexible choice for Rhode Island students who want broad sector preparation.

    View program
    • 36 total credit hours delivered fully online
    • Flat tuition of $15,156 for in-state and out-of-state students
    • Covers leadership, policy evaluation, and ethical governance
    • Nine elective credits allow curriculum customization
    • Conditional acceptance for applicants with GPA 2.41 to 2.84
    • Targets government, health, justice, and nonprofit leadership
    • Holistic application review with no entrance exam required
    • Emphasizes strategic planning and organizational management

How We Ranked Rhode Island's Online MPA Programs

Ranking online MPA programs in a small state like Rhode Island requires a methodology that balances breadth with precision. Our approach uses a composite scoring system designed to surface programs that genuinely serve working professionals pursuing public administration careers, not just those with the biggest marketing budgets.

What Goes Into the Composite Score

Every program in our rankings is evaluated against a consistent set of quality factors:

  • Online delivery: Programs offering full or substantial online coursework receive a scoring boost, reflecting the flexibility that working professionals need.
  • Graduate tuition and fees: We use degree-aware graduate tuition figures, not undergraduate sticker prices. This distinction matters because graduate and undergraduate costs can differ significantly at the same institution, and quoting the wrong number would mislead prospective students.
  • Graduation rates: Institutional graduation rates factor into the composite score. It is important to note that these figures are institution-wide, as reported through federal data collection, rather than specific to the MPA program itself. No publicly available dataset currently breaks graduation rates down to the individual graduate program level, so this metric serves as a proxy for overall institutional support and student success infrastructure.
  • Earnings and debt metrics: Where available, post-graduation earnings data and student debt figures help illustrate the return on investment graduates can expect.

The Role of NASPAA Accreditation

NASPAA accreditation status is factored into our evaluation where applicable. Programs holding this credential from the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration have met rigorous peer-review standards for curriculum, faculty qualifications, and student outcomes. However, accreditation is not the sole ranking driver. Some newer or smaller programs may deliver excellent outcomes without yet holding NASPAA accreditation, and our methodology accounts for that nuance.

Program-Level Earnings: A Note on Availability

We incorporate program-level earnings data when it has been published. For some programs, particularly those with smaller cohorts, this data is not yet available or is suppressed to protect student privacy. In those cases, we rely more heavily on the remaining quality indicators rather than penalizing a program for a data gap it cannot control.

Why Transparency Matters

We believe prospective students deserve to know exactly what is, and is not, behind a set of rankings. Institution-wide metrics are useful signals, but they are not the same as program-specific outcomes. Where we have had to use broader institutional data, we say so. This commitment to transparency is central to how we approach all of our program evaluations. Prospective students exploring online MPA programs in Connecticut or other nearby New England states will find the same methodological rigor applied across the board, and it aligns with the expectation that authoritative educational content should clearly disclose its limitations alongside its findings.

Online MPA Tuition & Cost Breakdown in Rhode Island

Understanding the full cost picture is essential before committing to an online MPA. The chart below compares published annual graduate tuition for Rhode Island's two online MPA programs, broken out by residency status. Note that each institution also reports an institution-wide average net price (roughly $20,252 for Johnson & Wales University-Online and $21,440 for URI), but those figures reflect undergraduate financial aid packages and may not accurately represent what a graduate student will pay out of pocket. Program-level debt and monthly repayment data are not yet available for either MPA program, so prospective students should contact each school's financial aid office for personalized graduate cost estimates.

Annual graduate tuition comparison: JWU-Online at $15,156 for all students versus URI at $18,028 in-state and $33,148 out-of-state

Financial Aid, Scholarships & Assistantships for RI MPA Students

Funding a graduate degree in public administration requires a proactive approach, especially in a small state where program options are concentrated. Rhode Island MPA students at the University of Rhode Island and Roger Williams University have several avenues to explore, but the key is starting early and asking the right questions.

Start With Your Program's Financial Aid Office

The most reliable first step is visiting the official financial aid and graduate school websites at both the University of Rhode Island and Roger Williams University. URI opens its scholarship portal on April 1 each year, and the FAFSA priority deadline for the 2026-27 academic year is in April.1 Meeting that deadline positions you for the widest pool of institutional aid. Keep in mind that URI's named graduate scholarships have historically been weighted toward undergraduate students, so MPA applicants should look specifically for department-level funding rather than relying solely on university-wide awards.2

Roger Williams University maintains its own set of graduate aid policies, so check that institution's financial aid pages separately for any merit-based awards, payment plans, or tuition discounts available to online learners.

Ask About Assistantships Directly

One common frustration for online MPA students is that assistantship and tuition waiver eligibility is not always clearly posted on program websites. Policies can differ between on-campus and online cohorts, and details sometimes change from year to year. The best strategy is to contact the MPA program director or graduate coordinator directly. Ask specifically whether online students can hold graduate assistantships, whether tuition waivers apply to distance learners, and whether any hybrid arrangements exist that might open the door to funding typically reserved for on-campus students.

Explore Rhode Island State-Level Aid

Rhode Island offers state-level financial assistance for residents pursuing higher education. The RI State Grant Program, administered through the Rhode Island Office of Higher Education, is worth investigating. While much of this funding is aimed at undergraduates, eligibility rules can shift, and certain grant or loan forgiveness programs may extend to graduate students. Check the Office of Higher Education's website for the latest policies and application windows.

Look Beyond the University

Professional associations in the public administration field offer scholarships and fellowships that MPA students sometimes overlook. NASPAA, the national accrediting body for public affairs programs, periodically sponsors awards for graduate students. Regional and local organizations focused on government management, such as chapters of the International City/County Management Association (ICMA) or the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA), may also have funding opportunities. Students who are still weighing whether a full graduate certificate in public administration might serve as a stepping stone before committing to an MPA should know that some of these same funding sources apply to certificate-level study as well. These awards tend to be competitive but less widely known, which can work in your favor.

  • FAFSA timing: File by April to meet URI's priority deadline for 2026-27.1
  • Direct outreach: Email or call the MPA program coordinator about assistantship eligibility for online students.
  • State grants: Visit the RI Office of Higher Education website for current graduate aid programs.
  • Professional associations: Search NASPAA, ICMA, and ASPA for fellowship and scholarship listings.

With graduate tuition costs continuing to rise (URI approved a 3.5% undergraduate tuition increase for 2026-27, and graduate rates often follow similar trajectories)2, assembling a funding strategy early is not optional. It is essential.

NASPAA Accreditation: Why It Matters for RI MPA Students

If you are comparing online MPA programs in Rhode Island, accreditation status should sit near the top of your checklist. Understanding what NASPAA accreditation means, and how it differs from the broader institutional accreditation you may already be familiar with, can shape both your academic experience and your career trajectory in public administration careers.

What NASPAA Accreditation Actually Means

NASPAA, the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration, is the specialized accrediting body for graduate programs in public administration, public policy, and related fields. Think of it as the gold standard for MPA programs specifically, whereas regional institutional accreditation (such as that granted by the New England Commission of Higher Education) evaluates the university as a whole. NASPAA accreditation goes deeper: it examines curriculum design, faculty qualifications, student learning outcomes, and a program's demonstrated commitment to public service values.1 NASPAA updates its roster of accredited programs annually, so the designation reflects ongoing quality rather than a one-time review.1

URI's NASPAA Accreditation Status in 2026

This is one of the most common questions prospective students in Rhode Island ask, and the answer is straightforward. The University of Rhode Island's MPA program holds current NASPAA accreditation as of 2026. That status places URI's program in the company of roughly 200 programs nationwide that meet NASPAA's rigorous peer-review standards. For students evaluating their options, this is a meaningful differentiator.

How Accreditation Connects to Career Outcomes

NASPAA accreditation is not just an academic badge. It carries tangible career benefits that matter in Rhode Island's public sector and beyond.3

  • Federal hiring preference: The U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) recognizes NASPAA-accredited degrees when evaluating candidates for federal positions. Graduating from an accredited program can streamline your eligibility for GS-grade positions that require a relevant master's degree.3
  • Employer recognition in RI state government: Hiring managers in Rhode Island's state agencies and municipal governments often treat NASPAA accreditation as a quality signal when screening applicants.3 It tells employers that your coursework met nationally benchmarked standards for public service education.
  • Credit transferability: If you need to transfer credits or pursue additional graduate work, credits from a NASPAA-accredited program are far more likely to be accepted by other accredited institutions.

Evaluating Non-NASPAA Programs

Rhode Island is a small state, and your online options may extend beyond its borders. If you consider a program that lacks NASPAA accreditation, weigh these trade-offs carefully. Non-accredited programs may still offer solid instruction, but you could face hurdles when applying for federal roles, transferring credits, or explaining your credential to employers who use accreditation as a screening tool. Before enrolling in any non-NASPAA program, ask whether the institution has applied for accreditation or plans to, review its curriculum against NASPAA competency domains, and talk to alumni about their job-search experiences. A lower tuition price or a more convenient schedule may be appealing, but those savings can lose their value if the degree does not open the doors you need.

Questions to Ask Yourself

Most online MPA programs in Rhode Island offer async formats designed for working professionals. If your schedule includes shift work, legislative sessions, or travel, async delivery lets you keep earning while you learn without sacrificing momentum.

A smaller state like Rhode Island means tighter professional networks. Choosing a program with local cohort events, capstone partnerships with state agencies, or alumni connections in Providence can give you a direct pipeline to RI government and municipal leadership positions.

Many federal agencies and competitive programs such as the Presidential Management Fellowship prefer or require a NASPAA accredited degree. If federal service is on your radar, accreditation status should be a top filter when comparing programs.

Most online MPA programs in Rhode Island are structured for part-time enrollment, typically spanning six to eight semesters. Mapping that timeline against your career goals, family obligations, and finances now helps you avoid burnout or unnecessary delays later.

Career Outcomes and Salary Data for RI MPA Graduates

Rhode Island's compact geography and concentrated public sector create a surprisingly strong job market for MPA graduates. Whether you plan to stay in the Providence metro area or leverage your degree across New England, understanding what graduates actually earn and where they land can sharpen your decision about which program to pursue.

What Federal Earnings Data Tells Us

Program-level earnings data from the federal College Scorecard, which tracks graduates at one, two, four, and five years after completion, is not yet available for Rhode Island's online MPA programs. Neither the University of Rhode Island nor Johnson & Wales University has published program-specific post-completion earnings through this reporting mechanism. That means you will need to rely on broader occupational wage benchmarks to set realistic salary expectations.

Similarly, federal data on employment rates shortly after graduation and the share of graduates earning above the poverty line have not been reported for these specific MPA programs. While that limits a direct program-to-program comparison, the regional labor market data below offers a reliable proxy.

Providence Metro Area Salary Benchmarks

Bureau of Labor Statistics data for the Providence-Warwick, RI-MA metro area shows that occupations commonly filled by MPA holders pay well above the state median income.1 Based on 2024 estimates:

  • General and Operations Managers: Median annual wage of $100,000 to $115,000, reflecting senior roles in agencies and large nonprofits.1
  • Administrative Services and Facilities Managers: Median annual wage of $90,000 to $105,000, common in state and municipal government.1
  • Management Analysts: Median annual wage of $75,000 to $90,000, a frequent landing spot for policy-oriented MPA graduates.1
  • Business Operations Specialists: Median annual wage of $70,000 to $90,000, spanning compliance, grants management, and program coordination.1
  • Social and Community Service Managers: Median annual wage of $72,000 to $83,000, particularly relevant for nonprofit-track graduates.1

The broader community and social service occupations group employs roughly 12,000 workers in the metro area at an average hourly wage near $28.67, underscoring significant demand even at the entry and mid-career levels.2

Where RI MPA Graduates Work

Rhode Island's state government is the single largest employer of public administration professionals. Agencies that routinely hire MPA-credentialed staff include the Rhode Island Department of Administration, which oversees budgeting, purchasing, and human resources for the entire state workforce, and the Rhode Island Office of Management and Budget, where policy analysts and budget specialists directly influence fiscal strategy.

At the municipal level, Providence city government employs planners, government program managers, and community development specialists across dozens of departments. Smaller cities like Cranston, Warwick, and Pawtucket also recruit for similar roles on a regular basis.

The nonprofit sector rounds out the picture. Organizations such as United Way of Rhode Island and Crossroads RI, the state's largest homeless services provider, actively seek graduates with public management and policy analysis training. These roles blend direct service oversight with grant administration, strategic planning, and community engagement, all core MPA competencies. Graduates interested in leading such organizations may eventually pursue an executive director role in nonprofit settings.

Positioning Yourself for the Strongest Outcomes

Because Rhode Island is a small state, networking carries outsized weight. Internships and capstone projects embedded in URI's NASPAA-accredited curriculum can connect you directly with hiring managers in state agencies and major nonprofits. If you are enrolled in Johnson & Wales University's program, the Providence campus location offers proximity to the State House and downtown nonprofit corridor. Whichever path you choose, pairing your degree with hands-on RI experience is the most reliable way to accelerate both placement and salary growth after graduation.

Specializations and Concentrations Available Online

Rhode Island's online MPA programs offer distinct specialization paths that reflect the state's unique economic landscape, from coastal policy and marine industries to emergency preparedness and nonprofit leadership. Choosing a concentration that aligns with local workforce demand can sharpen your career trajectory and make you a more competitive candidate in the public and third sectors. Here is how the available options compare across the state's programs.

FeatureUniversity of Rhode Island (URI)Roger Williams University (RWU)Johnson & Wales University (JWU)
Listed ConcentrationsPolicy Analysis, Public Management, plus stackable certificates (including the 'Blue MPA' ocean and coastal management focus)Emergency Management SpecializationNine elective credits allow customization across government, health, justice, and nonprofit tracks
Delivery FormatFully online (accelerated 7-week modules)Hybrid/online (some on-site components may apply)Fully online
NASPAA AccreditedYesNoNo
Capstone or Practicum RequirementPSC 592 Capstone in Public Administration and Policy (3 credits, completed online)Internship or research project plus a directed-study capstoneResearch and policy analysis coursework integrated into the curriculum
Alignment with RI EconomyStrong fit for marine industries, coastal resilience, and environmental policy roles across Narragansett Bay and the state's blue economyDirectly relevant to emergency management agencies and first-responder coordination in a coastal, hurricane-prone stateBroad applicability to Rhode Island's sizable healthcare, nonprofit, and municipal government sectors
Total Credits36Varies by track36
Fully Online Availability of ConcentrationYes, all concentrations and stackable certificates are available fully onlineCore coursework is online, but practicum or internship components may require in-person engagementYes, elective-based customization is fully online

Admissions Requirements & Tips for RI Online MPA Programs

Getting into a Rhode Island online MPA program is a manageable process, but understanding what each school expects can save you time and strengthen your application. Below is a consolidated look at what the University of Rhode Island (URI) and Roger Williams University (RWU) typically require, along with practical tips to make your candidacy stand out.

GPA, GRE, and Work Experience

Most MPA programs in the state look for a minimum undergraduate GPA in the range of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale, though applicants who fall slightly below that threshold are not automatically disqualified. URI has historically accepted GRE scores but also offers waiver pathways for candidates with substantial professional experience or an advanced degree already in hand. RWU tends to take a holistic approach, weighing work history and leadership accomplishments alongside academic metrics. Both programs value public-sector or nonprofit experience, and even a few years in government, community organizing, or policy-adjacent roles can meaningfully offset a lower GPA. Prospective students in neighboring states often face similar requirements; those researching online MPA programs in Connecticut or online MPA programs for Maine students will notice comparable GPA and experience benchmarks.

Letters of recommendation are standard at both institutions. Plan on two to three letters, ideally from supervisors or faculty who can speak to your analytical ability and commitment to public service. A well-crafted personal statement is equally important; use it to connect your career trajectory to specific program offerings rather than writing a generic essay about wanting to "make a difference."

Deadlines and Rolling Admissions

URI's MPA program typically sets priority application deadlines in the spring for fall enrollment, though late applications may be considered on a space-available basis. RWU has historically offered more flexible, rolling admissions for its online cohorts, which is helpful for working professionals who may not finalize their decision until closer to the start of a term. Always verify current deadlines directly with each program, as timelines can shift from year to year.

Prerequisite Coursework

Some MPA curricula assume a baseline familiarity with statistics and introductory economics. URI, in particular, may recommend or require a foundational statistics course before enrolling in quantitative methods coursework. If your undergraduate transcript does not include these subjects, consider completing an affordable community college course beforehand. This small investment not only satisfies prerequisites but also signals quantitative readiness to the admissions committee.

Tips to Strengthen Your Application

  • Leverage public-sector experience: Even part-time or volunteer roles in municipal government, advocacy organizations, or community nonprofits demonstrate the kind of applied knowledge MPA programs prize. Frame these experiences with specific outcomes in your personal statement.
  • Address a low GPA head-on: If your undergraduate GPA is below the typical 3.0 threshold, use the optional essay or personal statement to explain the context and highlight any upward trends, graduate-level coursework, or professional certifications that reflect your current ability.
  • Request a GRE waiver early: If you believe you qualify for a waiver based on professional experience, an existing graduate degree, or other criteria, reach out to the admissions office well before the deadline. Programs are often willing to discuss waiver eligibility informally, and getting clarity early lets you focus your energy on the rest of the application.

A thoughtful, well-organized application that ties your professional goals to the specific strengths of a Rhode Island MPA program will always outperform a generic submission. Take the time to research each program's culture, faculty interests, and specialization tracks so your materials reflect genuine fit.

FAQ: Online MPA Programs in Rhode Island

Prospective MPA students in Rhode Island often have similar questions about cost, accreditation, and career outcomes. Below, we answer the most common questions to help you make a well-informed decision about pursuing an online Master of Public Administration in the Ocean State.

Tuition for an online MPA in Rhode Island varies by residency status and institution. At the University of Rhode Island, in-state graduate tuition runs approximately $14,500 to $15,500 per year, while out-of-state students can expect significantly higher rates. Total program costs for a 42-credit MPA typically fall between $30,000 and $50,000 depending on residency, fees, and pace of completion. Financial aid and assistantships can reduce net cost substantially.

Yes. The University of Rhode Island's MPA program holds accreditation from the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA), the gold standard for public administration education. This accreditation confirms the program meets rigorous standards for curriculum quality, faculty qualifications, and student outcomes. NASPAA accreditation also enhances your credential's recognition among public sector employers and can be important for certain federal hiring pathways.

Rhode Island institutions have expanded online delivery options in recent years. The University of Rhode Island offers MPA coursework in hybrid and online formats, though specific requirements may include occasional on-campus or synchronous components. Students should verify the latest delivery model directly with the program, as format availability can shift between semesters. Fully online alternatives from NASPAA-accredited programs in neighboring New England states are also worth exploring.

Most online MPA programs in Rhode Island require around 42 credit hours and can be completed in approximately two years of full-time study. Part-time students, who make up a large share of online cohorts, typically finish in three to four years. Some programs offer accelerated options or allow transfer credits that can shorten the timeline. Capstone or internship requirements may also influence your completion schedule.

An MPA opens doors to leadership roles across government, nonprofit, and healthcare sectors. Common positions in Rhode Island include city or town manager, policy analyst, budget director, nonprofit executive director, and program manager within state agencies. Rhode Island's concentration of municipal governments and active nonprofit sector creates steady demand. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, public administration managers in the broader New England region earn median salaries well above $90,000 annually.

For most public sector professionals, an MPA delivers strong returns. The degree is widely recognized as the standard professional credential for government management and policy roles. MPA holders typically earn significantly more than peers with only a bachelor's degree, and the credential often satisfies educational requirements for senior civil service positions. When paired with NASPAA accreditation, the degree signals verified competency to hiring committees at the local, state, and federal levels.

Rhode Island's MPA offerings, particularly URI's NASPAA-accredited program, compete well with options in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and other New England states. Tuition tends to be lower than comparable programs at larger research universities in Boston, and class sizes in Rhode Island are often smaller, allowing more faculty interaction. Students who want additional specialization options may also consider NASPAA-accredited online programs at UConn or Suffolk University, but URI's strong regional reputation and competitive pricing make it a compelling choice.

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